Gender differences in self-concept and psychological well-being in old age: a meta-analysis.

Because of women's higher risk of being widowed, having health problems, and needing care, one might expect them to have a more negative self-concept and lower subjective well-being (SWB). However, women may also have greater access to sources of SWB (e.g., relations to adult children) and may engage in processes to protect the self (e.g., lowered aspirations). Meta-analysis was used to synthesize findings from 300 empirical studies on gender differences in life satisfaction, happiness, self-esteem, loneliness, subjective health, and subjective age in late adulthood. Older women reported significantly lower SWB and less positive self-concept than men on all measures, except subjective age, although gender accounted for less than 1% of the variance in well-being and self-concept. Smaller gender differences in SWB were found in younger than in older groups. Statistically controlling for gender differences in widowhood, health, and socioeconomic status decreased gender differences in SWB. Cohort differences in SWB are reported as well.