Cognitive arithmetic across cultures.

Canadian university students either of Chinese origin (CC) or non-Asian origin (NAC) and Chinese university students educated in Asia (AC) solved simple-arithmetic problems in the 4 basic operations (e.g., 3 + 4, 7 - 3, 3 x 4, 12 divided by 3) and reported their solution strategies. They also completed a standardized test of more complex multistep arithmetic. For complex arithmetic, ACs outperformed both CCs and NACs. For simple arithmetic, however, ACs and CCs were equal and both performed better than NACs. The superior simple-arithmetic skills of CCs relative to NACs implies that extracurricular culture-specific factors rather than differences in formal education explain the simple-arithmetic advantage for Chinese relative to non-Asian North American adults. NAC's relatively poor simple-arithmetic performance resulted both from less efficient retrieval skills and greater use of procedural strategies. Nonetheless, all 3 groups reported using procedures for the larger simple subtraction and division problems, confirming the importance of procedural knowledge in skilled adults' performance of elementary mathematics.