Angiotensin II and the pathophysiology of cardiovascular remodeling.

Hypertension is associated with a number of adverse morphologic and functional changes in the cardiovascular system. These include remodeling of the left ventricle, alterations in the morphology and mechanical properties of the vasculature, and the development of endothelial dysfunction. Recent studies have shown that angiotensin II is capable of mediating these changes via its interaction with the angiotensin II type 1 receptor. These nonhemodynamic effects of angiotensin II are independent of its effect on blood pressure. Thus, elevated levels of angiotensin II may lead directly to many hypertension-associated pathologies. Recent evidence that mechanical strain, oxidized low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and aldosterone can cause upregulation of angiotensin II type 1 receptors indicates that activation of the renin-angiotensin system is not necessary for the actions of angiotensin II to be amplified. Because the strain on the vessel wall may be increased under conditions of hypertension, increased arterial pressure may amplify the actions of angiotensin II without a discernible increase in plasma angiotensin II levels. In both the myocardium and the peripheral vasculature, fibrosis is a major component of the remodeling that occurs in hypertension. There is substantial evidence that transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-beta(1)) mediates angiotensin-II-induced fibrosis in patients with hypertension and in those with a variety of nephropathies. Mechanical strain also induces fibrosis in a mechanism mediated by TGF-beta(1). This cytokine thus represents a common pathway by which angiotensin II and increased arterial pressure may induce cardiovascular fibrosis.