Safe levels of cadmium intake to prevent renal toxicity in human subjects.

The present review attempts to provide an update of the scientific knowledge on the renal toxicity which occurs in human subjects as a result of chronic ingestion of low-level dietary Cd. It highlights important features of Cd toxicology and sources of uncertainty in the assessment of health risk due to dietary Cd. It also discusses potential mechanisms for increased susceptibility to Cd toxicity in individuals with diabetes. Exposure assessment on the basis of Cd levels in foodstuffs reveals that vegetables and cereals are the main sources of dietary Cd, although Cd is also found in meat, albeit to a lesser extent. Cd accumulates particularly in the kidney and liver, and hence offal contains relatively high amounts. Fish contains only small quantities of Cd, while crustaceans and molluscs may accumulate larger amounts from the aquatic environment. Data on Cd accumulation in human kidney and liver obtained from autopsy studies are presented, along with results of epidemiological studies showing the relationship between renal tubular dysfunction and kidney Cd burden. These findings suggest that a kidney Cd level of 50 microg/g wet weight is a maximum tolerable level in order to avoid abnormal kidney function. This renal Cd burden corresponds to a urinary Cd excretion of 2 microg/d. Accordingly, safe daily levels of Cd intake should be kept below 30 microg per person. Individual variations in Cd absorption and sensitivity to toxicity predicts that a dietary Cd intake of 30 microg/d may result in a slight renal dysfunction in about 1% of the adult population. The previous guideline for a maximum recommended Cd intake of 1 microg/kg body weight per d is thus shown to be too high to ensure that renal dysfunction does not occur as a result of dietary Cd intake.