New approaches to phenotypic analysis in adult mice.

Gain- and loss-of-function strategies using transgenic over-expression and targeted ablation of candidate genes in in the mouse have provided important mechanistic insights into cardiovascular development, physiology and disease. An essential, but challenging step is the functional analysis of the resultant phenotype. The methods described in this review permit the study of integrated cardiovascular physiology in the adult mouse. A critical review of the available in vivo methods that assay cardiac volume (echocardiography, conductance volumetry, sonomicrometry, magnetic resonance imaging) pressure (micromanometers), flow (Doppler echocardiography), and bioelectricity (electrophysiologic studies) are presented.