The role of scheduling in learning through observation.

In the 2 experiments reported in the present article, participants (N = 40, Experiment 1; N = 60, Experiment 2) learned to solve complex puzzles under different schedules of physical practice, observation, or a combination of the two. The results of both studies indicated that observation, in the absence of any physical practice, allows the development of an accurate but relatively nonfunctional cognitive representation. The data suggest that, even when the motor demands are minimal, the functional significance of the cognitive representation is not maximally realized until physical interaction with the task is possible. Thus, providing the participant with an interspersed practice schedule during acquisition enables that interaction to occur, thereby allowing the absolute number of physical practice trials to be reduced and replaced by observation trials, but leading to equivalent learning.