Functional anatomy of movement disorders.

Models of basal ganglia function are described which encapsulate the principal pathophysiological mechanisms underlying parkinsonian akinesia on the one hand and abnormal involuntary movement disorders (dyskinesias) on the other. In Parkinson's disease, degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopamine system leads to overactivity of the 'indirect' striatopallidal projection to the lateral (external) segment of the globus pallidus. This causes inhibition of lateral pallidal neurons, which in turn project to the subthalamic nucleus. Disinhibition of the subthalamic nucleus leads to abnormal subthalamic overactivity and, as a consequence, overactivity of medial (internal) pallidal output neurons. Dyskinesias, such as are observed in Huntington's disease, levodopa-induced dyskinesia and ballism, share mechanistic features in common and are associated with decreased neuronal activity in both the subthalamic nucleus and the medial globus pallidus.