The effect of encoding manipulations on neural correlates of episodic retrieval.

The present experiments investigated whether the neural correlates of explicit (conscious) retrieval from episodic memory vary qualitatively according to conditions at encoding, as is predicted by current views of the neural basis of memory retrieval. Event-related potential (ERP) correlates of word stem (e.g. MOT_) cued recall were compared for items studied under different encoding conditions. In Experiment 1, encoding was either 'shallow' or 'deep' whereas in Experiment 2 the presentation modality of the study items was either visual or auditory. In both experiments robust ERP memory effects were observed for stems completed with explicitly retrieved items from each encoding condition. The effects varied in their magnitude, such that they were largest when elicited by the more memorable class of item in each experiment. The scalp distributions of the effects did not differ according to encoding condition, a finding which offers no support for the view that retrieval involves the literal reinstatement of neural activity engaged at the time of encoding. The findings instead point to the existence of a set of retrieval operations that are engaged regardless of the conditions under which retrieved information is encoded.