The frequency of temporal-self and social comparisons in people's personal appraisals.

Although past literature emphasizes the importance of social comparisons, in this study it was predicted that participants would often mention temporal comparisons in their self-descriptions. The first 3 studies revealed that participants report as many or more temporal-past comparisons than social comparisons. It was predicted that people would particularly favor temporal-past comparisons when they are interested in enhancing themselves. Temporal-past comparisons are gratifying, because they tend to indicate improvement over time. Social comparisons may be preferred when people are motivated to evaluate themselves accurately. These predictions were supported when self-evaluation and self-enhancement goals were explicitly manipulated (Study 4) or primed (Study 5).