Redox regulation of chemokine receptor expression.

Cytokines and reactive oxygen intermediates (ROI) are frequent companions at sites of acute inflammation. We have shown previously that in human monocytes, bacterial lipopolysaccharide, IL-1, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha induce a rapid down-regulation of the monocyte chemotactic protein-1 receptor CCR2 (CC chemokine receptor-2). These stimuli also induce production of ROI. In this paper, we investigate the influence of antioxidants and/or ROI on chemokine-receptor expression. In human monocytes, the antioxidant pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) rapidly inhibited CCR2 (95-100% of inhibition) and CCR5 (77-100% of inhibition) mRNA expression by strongly decreasing transcript stability. CCR2 half-life was decreased from 1.5 h to 45 min; CCR5 half-life was decreased from 2 h to 70 min. This inhibitory activity also included CXCR4 (CXC chemokine receptor-4) but not CXCR2 receptor and, although to a lesser extent, was shared by the antioxidants N-acetyl-l-cysteine and 2-mercaptoethanol. In contrast, the ROI-generating system xanthine/xanthine oxidase increased CCR5 and CXCR4 mRNA expression and counteracted the inhibitory effect of PDTC. Accordingly, H(2)O(2) and the glutathione-depleting drug buthionine sulfoximine increased to different extents CCR2, CCR5, and CXCR4 mRNA expression. The PDTC-mediated inhibition of CCR5 and CXCR4 mRNA expression was associated with decreased chemotactic responsiveness (>90% inhibition) and with a marked inhibition of surface-receptor expression. In contrast, xanthine/xanthine oxidase opposed the bacterial lipopolysaccharide- and tumor necrosis factor-alpha-mediated inhibition of CCR5 and CXCR4 mRNA expression and increased both the CCR5 surface expression and the cell migration (3-fold) in response to macrophage inflammatory protein-1beta. These results suggest that the redox status of cells is a crucial determinant in the regulation of the chemokine system.