Role of hepatic, intrahepatic and hepatoenteral nerves in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism and hemodynamics of the liver and intestine.

The liver as an effector organ is the major glucose reservoir, the utilization of which is controlled by hormones but also by hepatic sympathetic nerves. The liver as a sensory organ detects a glucose concentration gradient between the hepatic artery and the portal vein by intrahepatic sensory-effector nerves, generating a cholinergic signal for an insulin-dependent net hepatic glucose uptake. The liver senses the insulin concentration by hepatoenteral sensory-effector nerves, generating a cholinergic signal to increase glucose absorption in the intestine and thus its coordinated utilization in liver, muscle and adipose tissue.